VOCAB JOURNAL #9

 VOCABULARY 

Protein sorting

Proteins are carried in vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, where they are further processed and sorted for transport to lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or cell secretion.

KDEL

This is a receptor of an integral membrane protein that is found in the Golgi/intermediate compartment and is responsible for retrieving ER proteins with a C-terminal KDEL sequence that have escaped. This occurs in all COPI-coated transport carriers that carry retrograde traffic.

Melanosomes

 Organelles that generate and store melanin, a common biological pigment with a unique set of features such as a high refractive index, semiconducting properties, and high fossilization potential.

Reflection Journal #8

 Hello Journal,

    A few days ago in my Cell Biology class, we were discussing the prions. A prion is a protein that causes normal proteins in the brain to fold improperly.  "Mad Cow disease" was one of the disorders caused by prions that we discussed in class. Mad cow disease is a disease that infects cattle and causes a gradual deterioration of the brain and spinal cord. And variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) is a deadly degenerative disease that affects the brain and spinal cord in humans over time. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is another name for this condition (or BSE). I smiled at the name "Mad Cow disease" when I first heard it since it seemed amusing to me. However, it is so awful that it can be fatal. This is a brain disease that can be passed from mature cattle to humans through infected meat. Humans can contract the sickness by eating tainted meat. When it comes from cattle, the sickness is called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it causes dementia and death. This is a rather uncommon condition. The illness is marked by rapid mental decline, which can happen in as little as a few months. The vast majority of victims suffer due to their injuries and fall into a coma. Because research is still ongoing, there is presently no treatment for this condition. However, according to certain countries that have implemented a prohibition on giving meat and bone meals to cattle in areas where the disease has been detected, the disease itself has reduced.

Journal #7 - Vocabulary

Hello journal,

VOCABULARY TIME..

SNARE Proteins (T-snare & V-snare)

SNARE proteins are molecular motors that allow two membranes to fuse biologically [1]. The vesicle membrane (v-SNAREs) contains part of the motor assembly, while the target membrane (t-SNAREs) contains the other half.

Vesicle budding

Protein sorting is a method for selectively incorporating cargo into developing vesicles while leaving resident proteins in the donor compartment.

Coat proteins 

Coat proteins concentrate macromolecules onto specialized membrane patches, which are subsequently deformed into miniature coated vesicles, allowing selective transport of macromolecules from one membrane-enclosed compartment to another.

Journal #6: Investigation

 Hello Journal,

   In this journal, I'm discussing some articles and information I investigated to study a disease called myeloma or multiple myeloma. So, what is myeloma? Well, myeloma in simple terms is cancer that affects the plasma cells in the bone marrow. However, this disease is not limited to just staying inside the bone marrow as this disease progresses, the clonal cells tend to develop the ability to multiply outside of the bone marrow resulting in extramedullary myeloma (EMM) and plasma cell leukemia (PCL). One of the articles that I read for this investigation was titled "Understanding the multiple biological aspects leading to myeloma" by a few authors named Eileen M. Boyle, Faith E. Davies, Xavier Leleu, and  Gareth J. Morgan. This article was published in the PMC - US National library of medicine & National institutes of health. PMC publishers are one of my most chosen and favorite websites which use for most of my research. It is a creditable website that comes from government-owned websites that includes finding primary research articles as well as review articles and journals. This specific article about myeloma, this article talks about different aspects that may lead to myeloma. This not only talks about the aspects, but it also helped me understand how the actual plasma cells development happens. Some of the aspects that this article talks about are the clinical behavior of different cases with myeloma, environmental and inherited contributions, the niche of the bone marrow which plays an important role in the disease, the different mutations that occur in the DNA which contributes to myeloma, myeloma evolution, and the different implications of patients who have myeloma. According to this article, it was found out from different patients that myeloma occurs when there are mutations in the site of BIRC2 and BIRC3 genes, CYLD and 14q32 the site of TRAF3 which all belongs to the genes that are involved in the F-κB pathway, indicating that upregulation of NF-κB signaling is important in myeloma. Also, a Tumor suppressor and cell cycle deregulations are one other factor that contributes to myeloma. Overall, this article was an excellent one that gave a lot of information about the causes and consequences of the abnormalities occurring in normal B cells that lead to myeloma. It has also been made clear that in addition to the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that lead to myeloma progression, the degree of inter-and intraclonal heterogeneity adds to the complexity.

Citation: Boyle, Eileen M et al. “Understanding the multiple biological aspects leading to myeloma.” Haematologica vol. 99,4 (2014): 605-12. doi:10.3324/haematol.2013.097907

    I also viewed and read some information about the vaccines for myeloma from a website called "Creative Biolabs". This website also provided some information about myeloma as a hematological cancer disease and also talked about some available vaccines for myeloma. According to creative Biolabs, myeloma is an incurable but treatable condition where people with family history, obesity, alcohol, radiation exposure, and certain chemicals are all some risk factors. Also, there can be no symptoms initially for this malignant disease but later as the disease progress, symptoms like bone pain in the areas of the spine and chest, constipation, nausea, weight loss, loss of appetite, fatigue, confusion, or mental fogginess, frequent infections can be seen. Some treatments involve Chemotherapy, thalidomide, or lenalidomide, as well as stem cell transplantation, which may help. To treat the discomfort of bone lesions, bisphosphonates and radiation are sometimes employed. Moreover, cellular and non- cell-based vaccines are also available to treat/prevent myeloma. 

Citation: Vaccines for myeloma. Vaccines for Myeloma - Creative Biolabs. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2022, from https://www.creative-biolabs.com/vaccine/vaccines-for-myeloma.htm 

Encounter Journal #5

 Hello Journal,

I noticed my father clawing his skin so hard a few days ago (especially his leg). He's a psoriatic patient, and it's difficult to look at his skin and see him scratching all over. Psoriasis is a skin ailment in which red, itchy scaly patches appear on the knees, elbows, trunk, and scalp, among other locations. My father is currently at an advanced stage of psoriasis, which means he has psoriasis all over his body—elbows, hands, neck, posterior parts of his body, legs, and thighs. Even though psoriasis is an autoimmune illness, something happens to his cells. When I was younger, I used to wonder why his body (including the skin on his legs, scalp, hands, and palms, among other places) removes so many dandruff-like substances. And he explained to me that those are his dying cells. I was terrified when I heard it for the first time. I didn't have any scientific background at the time, and my first thought was that something terrible was going to happen to my father as his cells died. However, when I learned more about it, I realized that with psoriasis, the life cycle of skin cells is substantially accelerated, resulting in an accumulation of dead cells on the epidermis surface.

Vocabulary Journal #4

 

Hellooo Journal,

IT'S VOCABULARY TIME..

Glycosylation 

A controlled enzymatic modification that adds a sugar molecule to an organic molecule, usually a protein. It has a significant impact on protein structure, function, and stability. Glycosylation is known to change the structural three-dimensional organization of proteins.

Aminoacyl-tRNA 

It is the charged tRNA that has a chemical link with its corresponding amino acid (charged).  The aa-tRNA transports the amino acid to the ribosome, where it is incorporated into the polypeptide chain formed during translation, along with certain elongation factors.

Wobble Effect 

The wobble effect explains why many codons can code for the same amino acid. That is, because of the less-precise base pairings that can form between the 3rd base of the codon and the base at the 1st position on the anticodon, a single tRNA molecule (with one amino acid attached) can recognize and bind to many codons.

Investigation Journal #3

Hello Journal,

The two articles I read for this Journal talk about the ACE2 protein and the glycosylation process. 

The first article "The glycosylation in SARS-CoV-2 and its receptor ACE2" evaluated the detections, substrates, and biological activities of glycosylation in SARS-CoV-2 proteins as well as the human receptor ACE2, as well as the approved and ongoing SARS-CoV-2 glycosylation therapies. This research paper not only contributes to a better knowledge of viral glycobiology but also the development of new preventive and treatment strategies for SARS-CoV-2 and its variations. It was really interesting and helped me to learn the process of protein glycosylation. In viruses, glycosylation is the most prevalent post-translational modification (PTM). Glycans are covalently attached to the amino acid side chains of proteins through post-translational or co-translational processes, resulting in protein glycosylation. Glycans, which are monosaccharide chains that are either linear or branched, have high solubility and conformational entropy, which controls protein folding, structure, and function. The glycosylation is N-linked and O-linked and this has a big impact on pathogenesis, host recognition, penetration, binding, as well as recycling. Also, the viral protein, for example, Sars-cov-2 itself is heavily reliant on host organelles and enzymes such that the viruses utilize the host cell's metabolic pathway to manufacture their genetic and structural resources. 

This picture above helped me understand the N and O linked glycosylation process. That is the N-glycosylation referes to the glycans attached to asparagine (Asn). This process happens in the endoplasmic reticulum where the glycan precursor is generated. Then it is transported to the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum for the addition of the monosaccharides. And finally three types of N-linked glycans are created such as oligomannose, hybrid, and complex-type. 

Citation: Gong, Y., Qin, S., Dai, L., & Tian, Z. (2021, November 15). The glycosylation in SARS-COV-2 and its receptor ACE2. Nature News. Retrieved January 27, 2022, from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-021-00809-8 

The second article "The role of glycosylation in receptor signaling" also provides various information about the role of glycosylation in protein function, receptor functions, signaling proteins, as well as glycosylation in receptor pharmacology. There was a lot of information that was similar to my first article about the N and O linked glycosylation process. By examining particular instances of how glycosylation regulates receptor signaling in mammalian cells, this research provided an overview of how glycosylation of ligands, receptors, and signaling proteins impacts signal transduction in mammalian cells. As it was discussed in the first article about N-glycosylation and O-glycosylation, this article mentioned that even though these can aid in the proper folding of the final protein product into its three-dimensional, physiologically active structure. This is not true for all glycoproteins. The mechanism for adding these sugar residues is complex and poorly understood, but it is known to involve numerous enzymes and is physiologically regulated. This indicates that glycosylation, as well as other secondary protein processing, is critical for these proteins' biological function.

The picture above helps us understand the regulation of receptor-ligand signaling by the glycosylation.

Citation: Arey, B. J. (2012, September 26). The role of glycosylation in receptor signaling. IntechOpen. Retrieved January 27, 2022, from https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/39461 

Reflection- Cell Journal #2

Hello journal , 

This week, I learned some basics of cell biology which include prokaryotes and eukaryotes, their classifications, structures, and genetic information - such as DNA sequencing, microarrays, chromatography, etc. Because this subject focuses on the cell, in one of our first classes, my classmates and I sketched and explained the cells that are affected during a covid infection and how it progresses throughout our bodies. I thought our professor's requirement that we discuss it in class was an excellent idea because it is a current medical concern, and learning about it increases awareness and importance. Furthermore, because everyone's expertise and understanding differ, sharing information was like learning more about the role of cells in covid, such as the ACE2 receptor and the virus's replication process within our bodies. We sketched out the cell as a group and discussed the ways the virus spreads and replicates within the body. When someone discusses something, especially science-related issues, it helps me study when they talk about it frequently and sketch and describe it. Repetition of the content, which I define as studying it repeatedly, aids me in memorizing it.

VOCABULARY JOURNAL #1 - CELL & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

                   VOCABULARY TIME!!

 

CELL FRACTIONATION

It is a process of separating out the cellular organelles/components while preserving its individual functions. 

IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY

IHC is a technique used  for determining the tissue distribution of an antigen using monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies.

GLYCOSIDIC BOND

It is covalent bond between a saccharide molecule's hemiacetal group and the hydroxyl group of an organic substance 

ImmunoJournal #14 VoCAbuLarY

Hello Journal Readers, 

Hypersensitivity

A situation in which the body's ordinarily protective immune system causes harm to it.

There are four types of hypersensitivity such as:

                                                                            Type 1 

                                                                            Type 2

                                                                            Type 3

                                                                            Type 4 

Anaphylaxis

                        A severe allergic reaction to an antigen to which the body has developed a hypersensitivity.

Ionophores

A chemical capable of transporting certain ions across a cell's lipid membrane.

ImmunoJournal -#13 Encounter

 

Helloooo...

Today, I'd like to talk about an incident I had the other day. So, my father has a few medical issues, and yesterday, after returning from a doctor's appointment, he showed me a new medication for his psoriasis (a drug) that his doctor prescribed him, and he asked if I could look them up on the internet to see whether they were safe to use. So, as he said, I casually investigated the name of his drug, which is an injectable, and was extremely thrilled to know that it had something to do with immunology. This is primarily due to my lack of knowledge of psoriasis as an immune illness. Tremfya (guselkumab) is the name of the medication/drug that he was prescribed. Tremfya (guselkumab) is a monoclonal antibody used against interleukin-23 to treat psoriatic arthritis and plaque psoriasis. It's a drug that comes in two doses that are separated by eight weeks. My father suffers from plaque psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.IL-23 is a heterodimeric cytokine consisting of IL-12B and IL-23A subunits that belongs to the IL-12 family of cytokines. I was thrilled when I read the name Interleukin-23 because I was studying interleukins in my immunology class at Wau. At the same time, I was worried about my father because I discovered that he has three immunological conditions at the same time: psoriasis, arthritis, and diabetes. Polyautoimmunity is a term used to describe when a person has three or more immunological illnesses.